ORIGINAL PAPER
Critical assessment of soil fertility characteristics of long-term chemical fertilized coconut palm fields in India: a sustainability perspective
1
School of Biosciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Priyadarshini Hills P.O., Kottayam, Kerala, India – 686560
Submission date: 2025-10-10
Final revision date: 2026-02-05
Acceptance date: 2026-05-11
Online publication date: 2026-05-11
Publication date: 2026-05-11
Corresponding author
Joseph George Ray
School of Biosciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, Priyadarshini Hills PO, 686560, Kottayam, India
School of Biosciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, Priyadarshini Hills PO, 686560, Kottayam, India
Soil Sci. Ann., 2026, 77(2)221709
KEYWORDS
ABSTRACT
Monitoring soil fertility in chemicalized perennial tree crop fields worldwide is crucial, in line with the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 2). We conducted a random assessment of soil fertility status across the entire six-decade-old chemicalized traditional Coconut fields in Kerala state, South India, across palm varieties, soil types, palm health conditions, and agroclimatic zones in two seasons to critically analyse factors affecting the sustainability of soil fertility in such palm fields. The average physicochemical soil parameters, including soil pH, field water content (FWC), total organic carbon (TOC), soil available nitrogen (SAN), soil available phosphorus (SAP), and soil available potassium (SAK), were determined for each palm grove category and compared. The results revealed that soil pH, FWC, TOC, SAN, SAP, and SAK varied significantly across different Coconut fields, soil types, and seasons. Moreover, a tendency toward soil acidification (pH < 7) was observed in most Coconut fields, reflecting the general impact of long-term chemicalized farming in the region. Most fields were found deficient in SAN and SAK, whereas TOC and SAP were high or moderate. The findings also indicated that nutrient deficiency, particularly in SAK, is common in RWD fields. Overall, the findings suggest the importance of continuous monitoring of NPK nutrient regimes, soil pH, TOC, and above all, soil health parameters in palm fields to ensure the sustainability of Coconut productivity. This study serves as a model for general soil fertility assessments in long-term, chemicalized perennial tree crop fields worldwide.
REFERENCES (128)
1.
Abeysekara, M.G.D., Waidyarathne, K., 2020. The Coconut Industry: A Review of Price Forecasting Modelling in Major Coconut Producing Countries. Cord 36, 6–15. https://doi.org/10.37833/cord.....
2.
Alouw, J.C., Wulandari, S., 2020. Present status and outlook of Coconut development in Indonesia. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 418(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1....
3.
Ambili, K., Thomas, G.V., Indu, P., Gopal, M., Gupta, A., 2012. Distribution of Arbuscular Mycorrhizae Associated with Coconut and Arecanut-Based Cropping Systems. Agricultural Research 1(4), 338–345. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40003....
4.
Anderson, J.M., Ingram, J.S.I., 1993. Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility: A Handbook of Methods. CAB International, Oxford, UK.
5.
Athira, S., Guledagudda, S.S., 2024. Growth and instability analysis of Coconut in Kerala and India. Asian Journal of Agricultural Extension, Economics & Sociology 42(5), 61–67. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajaees....
6.
Avinash, R., Anil K.K., Karthika, K., Kalaiselvi, B., Sujatha, K., 2019. Coconut-growing soils in southern Karnataka: Characterization and classification. Journal of Plantation Crops 47(2), 96–106. https://doi.org/10.25081/jpc.2....
7.
Azene, B., Qiu, P., Zhu, R., Pan, K., Sun, X., Nigussie, Y., Yigez, B., Gruba, P., Wu, X., Zhang, L., 2022. Response of soil phosphorus fractions to land use change in the subalpine ecosystems of the Southeast margin of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, Southwest China. Ecological Indicators 144, 109432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecol....
8.
Barrow, N.J., Hartemink, A.E., 2023. The effects of pH on nutrient availability depend on both soils and plants. Plant and Soil 487, 21–37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104....
9.
Bhattacharyya, R., Ghosh, B.N., Mishra, P.K., Mandal, B., Rao, C.S., Sarkar, D., Das, K., Anil, K.S., Lalitha, M., Hati, K.M., Franzluebbers, A.J., 2015. Soil Degradation in India: Challenges and Potential Solutions. Sustainability 7, 3528–3570. https://doi.org/10.3390/su7043....
10.
Bray, R.H., Kurtz, L.T., 1945. Determination of total, organic, and available forms of phosphorus in soils. Soil Science 69, 39–45.
11.
Byju, G., 2001. Soil analysis - A lab manual. Central Tuber Crop Research Centre, Thiruvananthapuram, India.
12.
Cecil, S.R., Amma, P.G.K., 1998. Soils and nutrition. In: Nampoothiri, K.U.K., Koshy, P.K. (Eds.), Coconut root (wilt) disease. Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, India, p. 53-64.
13.
Chan, E., Elevitch, C.R., 2006. Cocos nucifera (Coconut). In: Elevitch, C.R. (Eds.), Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry. Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), Holualoa, Hawaii, p. 1-26. http://www.traditionaltree.org.
14.
Chandrakala, M., Ramesh, M., Sujatha, K., Hegde, R., Singh, S.K., 2018. Soil Fertility Evaluation under Different Land Use Systems in the Tropical Humid Region of Kerala, India. International Journal of plant and soil science 24(4), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.9734/ijpss/....
15.
Chanlabut, U., Nahok, B., 2023. Soil Carbon Stock and Soil Properties under Different Land Use Types of Agriculture. Environment and Natural Resources Journal 21(5), 417–427. https://doi.org/10.32526/ennrj....
16.
Chen, Y., Zhang, S., Wang, Y., 2022. Distribution Characteristics and Drivers of Soil Carbon and Nitrogen in the Drylands of Central Asia. Land 11, 1723. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11....
17.
Coconut Development Board (CDB) Statistics, 2021-22. Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India. https://Coconutboard.gov.in/St... Accessed May 15, 2023.
18.
Coconut Development Board (CDB) 2022. Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare, Department of Agriculture, Government of India.
19.
Daa-Kpode, U. A., Gustave, D., Edmond, S. A., Kolawolé, V.S., Farid, B.M., Kifouli, A., 2021. Ethnobotanical study of the Coconut palm in the coastal zone of Benin. International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation 13(3), 152–164. https://doi.org/10.5897/ijbc20....
20.
Devi, M., Ghatani, K., 2022. The use of Coconut in rituals and food preparations in India: a review. Journal of Ethnic Foods 9(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779....
21.
Dissanayaka, D.M.N.S., Nuwarapaksha, T.D., Udumann, S.S., Dissanayake, D., Atapattu, A.J., 2022. A sustainable way of increasing the productivity of Coconut cultivation using cover crops : A review. Circular Agricultural Systems 2(7), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.48130/CAS-2....
22.
Dissanayaka, D.M.N.S., Dissanayake, D.K.R.P.L., Udumann, S.S., Nuwarapaksha, T.D., Atapattu, A. J., 2023. Agroforestry—a key tool in the climate-smart agriculture context: a review on Coconut cultivation in Sri Lanka. Frontiers in Agronomy 5, 1162750. https://doi.org/10.3389/fagro.....
23.
Fang, X., Zhu, Y.L., Liu, J.D., Lin, X.P., Sun, H.Z., Tang, X.H., Hu, Y.L., Huang, Y.P., Yi, Z.G., 2022. Effects of Moisture and Temperature on Soil Organic Carbon Decomposition along a Vegetation Restoration Gradient of Subtropical China. Forests 13, 578. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13040....
24.
FAOSTAT Statistical Database, 2022. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en..., Accessed May 21, 2023.
25.
Farzadfar, S., Knight, J.D., Congreves, K.A., 2021. Soil organic nitrogen: an overlooked but potentially significant contribution to crop nutrition. Plant and Soil 462, 7–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104....
26.
George, G.P., Kuruvila, A., 2022. The Coconut Sector in Kerala: Trends and Challenges. Journal of Agricultural Development and Policy 32 (1), 133–139.
27.
Ghazali, M.F., Wikantika, K., Harto, A.B., Kondoh, A., 2020. Generating soil salinity, moisture, and pH from satellite imagery and its analysis. Information Processing in Agriculture 7(2), 294–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inpa....
28.
Gopal, M., Arunachalam, A.G.V., Maheswarappa, H.P., Thomas, G.V., Jacob, P.M., 2022. Autochthonous nutrient recycling driven by soil microbiota could be sustaining high Coconut productivity in the Lakshadweep Islands, sans external fertilizer application. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 38, 213. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11274....
29.
Govindasamy, P., Muthusamy, S.K., Bagavathiannan, M., Mowrer, J., Jagannadham, P.T.K., Maity, A., Halli, H.M., Sujayanand, G.K., Vadivel, R., Das, T.K., Raj, R., Pooniya, V., Babu, S., Rathore, S.S., Muralikrishnan, L., Tiwari, G., 2023. Nitrogen use efficiency—a key to enhancing crop productivity under a changing climate. Frontiers in Plant Science 14, 1121073. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2....
30.
Graham, E.R., Fox, R.L., 1971. Tropical soil potassium as related to the labile pool and calcium exchange equilibria. Soil Science 111(5), 318–322. https://doi.org/10.1097/000106....
31.
Hofman, G., Cleemput, O.V., 2004. Soil and Plant Nitrogen. International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA), Paris, France.
32.
Hombegowda, H. C., Van Straaten, O., Köhler, M., Hölscher, D., 2016. On the rebound: Soil organic carbon stocks can bounce back to near forest levels when agroforests replace agriculture in southern India. Soil 2(1), 13–23. https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-2....
33.
Hou, E., Chen, C., Wen, D., Liu, X., 2014. Relationships of phosphorus fractions to organic carbon content in surface soils in mature subtropical forests, Dinghushan, China. Soil Research 52(1), 55–63. https://doi.org/10.1071/SR1320....
34.
Huang, D., Liu, X., Huan, H., Liu, G., Hu, A., 2023. Intercropping of Stylosanthes green manure could improve the organic nitrogen fractions in a Coconut plantation with acid soil. PLoS ONE 18(3), e0277944. https://doi.org/10.1371/journa....
35.
Issaka, R.N., Senayah, J.K., Ennin, S.A., 2012. Assessment of Fertility Status of Soils Supporting Coconut (Cocos nucifera) Cultivation in Western and Central Regions of Ghana. West African Journal of Applied Ecology 20(1), 47–56.
36.
Jackson, M.L., 1973. Soil chemical analysis. Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, India.
37.
Joseph, J., Ray, J.G., 2023. A critical analysis of soil fertility parameters of rubber plantations with long-term fertilizer use in the Western Ghats of South India from a global sustainability perspective. Journal of Rubber Research 27, 459–475. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42464....
38.
Kai-lou, L., Jing, H., Tian-fu, H., Ya-zhen, L., Dong-chu, L., Qaswar, M., Abbas, M., Bo-ren, W., Jiang-xue, D., Lu, Z., Shu-jun, L., Li-sheng, L., Hui-min, Z., 2022. The relationship between soil aggregate-associated potassium and soil organic carbon with glucose addition in an Acrisol following long-term fertilization. Soil and Tillage Research 222, 105438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stil....
39.
Kalidas, K., Darthiya, M., Malathi, P., Thomas, L., 2014. Organic Coconut Cultivation in India – Problems & Prospects. International Journal of Scientific Research 3(6), 14–15. https://doi.org/10.15373/22778....
40.
Karthika, K.S., Philip, P.S., Anilkumar, K.S., Sathyaseelan, N., 2019. Significance of soil carbon studies in plantation-based ecosystems. Soil Health Management: Knowledge Harit Dhara 2(2), 19–21. https://iiss.res.in/old/eMagaz....
41.
Kaur, H., 2019. Forms of Potassium in Soil and Their Relationship with Soil Properties- A Review. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences 8(10), 1580-1586. https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcma....
42.
Kavitha, C., Sujatha, M.P., 2015. Soil fertility status in various agroecosystems of Thrissur district. International Journal of Agriculture and Crop Sciences 8(3), 328–338.
43.
Kerala State Council Science Report. Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment (KSCSTE), 2021. Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate Change, Govt of India. http://moef.nic.in/, Accessed May 23, 2023.
44.
Kerr, D.D., Ochsner, T.E., 2020. Soil organic carbon is more strongly related to soil moisture than soil temperature in temperate grasslands. Soil Science Society of America Journal 84(2), 587–596. https://doi.org/10.1002/saj2.2....
45.
Khadka, D., Lamichhane, S., Amgain, R., Joshi, S., Vista, S.P., Sah, K., Ghimire, N.H., 2019. Soil fertility assessment and mapping the spatial distribution of the agricultural research station, Bijayanagar, Jumla, Nepal. Eurasian Journal of Soil Science 8(3), 237–248. https://doi.org/10.18393/ejss.....
46.
Khan, H.H., Krishnakumar, V., 2018. Soil productivity and nutrition. In: Nampoothiri, K. U. K. (Eds.), The Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera L.) - Research and Development Perspectives. Springer Nature, Singapore, p. 323–442. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-98....
47.
Kimaro, O.D., Desie, E., Verbist, B., Kimaro, D.N., Vancampenhout, K., Feger, K.H., 2024. Soil organic carbon stocks and fertility in smallholder indigenous agroforestry systems of the North-Eastern mountains, Tanzania. Geoderma Regional 36, e00759. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geod....
48.
Krishnakumar, V., Maheswarappa, H.P., Jayasekhar, S., Shanavas, M., 2011. Economic evaluation of high-density multispecies cropping systems in the root (wilt) disease-affected Coconut (Cocos nucifera) area in Kerala. Journal of Plantation Crops 39(1), 125–130. http://hdl.handle.net/12345678....
49.
Kumar, S.N., Rajagopal, V., Thomas, S., Cherian, V.K., 2006. Effect of conserved soil moisture on the source-sink relationship in Coconut (Cocos nucifera) under different agroclimatic conditions in India. Indian Journal of Agricultural Science 76(5), 277–281. https://doi.org/10.1201/978142....
50.
Kumar, S.N., 2004. Drought Management in Coconut Gardens. Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kerala, India.
51.
Lara-Pérez, L.A., Oros-Ortega, I., Córdova-Iara, I., Estrada-Medina, H., O'Connor-Sánchez, A., Góngora-Castillo, E., Sáenz-Carbonell, L., 2020. Seasonal shifts of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in Cocos nucifera roots in Yucatan, Mexico. Mycorrhiza 30, 269-283. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00572....
52.
Li, Q., Wang, X., Jiang, M., Wu, Y., Yang, X., Liao, C., Liu, F., 2017. How environmental and vegetation factors affect spatial patterns of soil carbon and nitrogen in a subtropical mixed forest in Central China. Journal of Soils and Sediments 17, 2296–2304. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368....
53.
Lins, P.M.P., Viegas, I.J.M., Ferreira, E.V.O., 2021. Nutrition and production of Coconut palm cultivated with mineral fertilization in the state of pará. Revista Brasileira Fruticultra 43(3), e-113. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-2....
54.
Loganathan, P., Dayaratne, P.M.N., Shanmuganathan, R.T., 1984. Evaluation of the phosphorus status of some Coconut-growing soils of Sri Lanka. Cocos 29–43. https://doi.org/10.1017/S00218....
55.
Liu, J., Wang, D., Yan, X., Jia, L., Chen, N., Liu, J., Zhao, P., Zhou, L., Cao, Q., 2024. Effect of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium fertilization management on soil properties, leaf traits, and yield of Sapindus mukorossi. Frontiers in Plant Science 15, 1300683. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2....
56.
Lu, L., Zhu, H., Liu, Y., Liu, Y., Wu, Y., Chen, S., 2023. Bacterial Diversity and Community Structure Characteristics in Rhizosphere Soil of Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) under Intercropping Pineapple. American Journal of Biochemistry and Biotechnology 19(1), 71–83. https://doi.org/10.3844/ajbbsp....
57.
Lu, T., Wang, J., Zhu, H., Zhong, Z., Wang, X., Jia, X., Shao, M., Wei, X., 2025. Soil moisture determines effects of climates and soil properties on nitrogen cycling: Examination of arid and humid soils. Journal of Environmental Management 373, 123831. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenv....
58.
Malhotra, S.K., Maheswarappa, H.P., Selvamani, V., Chowdappa, P., 2017. Diagnosis and management of soil fertility constraints in Coconut (Cocos nucifera) : A review. Indian Journal of Agricultural Science 87, 711–726.
59.
Manjula, C., Samsudeen, K., Rahman, S., Rajesh, M.K., 2014. Characterization of Kuttiyadi ecotype of Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) using morphological and microsatellite markers. Journal of Plantation Crops 42(3), 301–315. https://updatepublishing.com/j....
60.
Maruthi, I., Peter, P., 2019. A Comprehensive study on the issue of Coconut production in Karnataka. A Report of Agricultural Development and Rural Transformation Centre (ADRTC) Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bengaluru.
61.
Meena, L. R., 2023. Soil Organic Carbon (SOC): A Tool of Soil Fertility and Productivity. Medicon Agriculture & Environmental Sciences 5(2), 1- 3.
62.
Mini, V., Mathew, U., 2018. Spatial variability of soil fertility in a Coconut-based agroecological unit in the sandy plains of Kerala, India. Asian Journal of Soil Science 13(1), 58–62. https://doi.org/10.15740/has/a....
63.
Nair, K.M., Kumar, K.S.A., Kumar, S.C.R., Ramamurty, V., Lalitha, M., Srinivas, S., Koyal, A., Parvathy, S., Sujatha, K., Shivanand, Hegde, R., Singh, S.K., 2018a. Coconut-growing soils of Kerala: 1. Characteristics and classification. Journal of Plantation Crops 46(2), 75–83. https://doi.org/10.25081/jpc.2....
64.
Nair, K.M., Haris, A., Mathew, J., Srinivasan, V., Dinesh, R., Hamza, H., 2018b. Coconut-growing soils of Kerala : 2. Assessment of fertility and soil-related constraints to Coconut production. Journal of Plantation Crops 46(2), 84–91. https://doi.org/10.25081/jpc.2....
65.
Nayar, N.M., 1980. A discourse on Coconut root (wilt) disease. Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasaragod, Kerala.
66.
Niral, V., Samsudeen, K., Sudha, R., Ranjini, T.N., 2019. Genetic Resource Management and Improved Varieties of Coconut. Indian Coconut Journal 62(4), 10- 14.
67.
Niral, V., Jerard, B.A., 2018. Botany, Origin and Genetic Resources of Coconut. In: Nampoothiri, K. U. K. (Eds.), The Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera L.) - Research and Development Perspectives. Springer, Singapore, pp. 57-111.
68.
Nirukshan, G.S., Dissanayake, D.M.P.D., Hearth, I., Tennakoon, A.N., 2016. Comparison of plant and soil nutritional status between organically and conventionally cultivated two Coconut lands in the intermediate zone of Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the 5th Young Scientist Forum, Coconut Research Institute, Lunuwila, Sri Lanka.
69.
Nuwarapaksha, T., Udumann, S., Dissanayake, D., Atapattu, A.J., 2022. Coconut-based multiple cropping systems: An analytical review in Sri Lankan Coconut cultivations. Circular Agricultural Systems 2(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.48130/cas-2....
70.
Osayande, P.E., Orhue, E.R., Ehigiator, J.O., Oviasogie, P.O., 2022. Potassium Status of Soils under Three Different Parent Materials of the Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq). Chemistry and Materials Research 14(2), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.7176/CMR/14....
71.
Owoyemi, J.M., Akinwamide, T.O., Ibidokun, A.O., 2022. Development of Coconut plantation in Nigeria : Problems and prospects. International Journal of Agriculture and Plant Science 4(1), 58–66.
72.
Pathirana, H.P.D.T.H., Yalegama, L.L.W.C., Madusanka, J.A.D., Senarathne, L.M.I., 2021. Physicochemical Properties of Virgin Coconut Oil Extracted from Different Coconut (Cocos nucifera L) Varieties. Cord 37(172), 1–10. https://Coconutcommunity.org/c....
73.
Puspaningrum, T., Indrasti, N.S., Indrawanto, C., Yani, M., 2023. Life cycle assessment of Coconut plantation, copra, and charcoal production. Global Journal of Environmental Science and Management 9(4), 653–672. https://doi.org/10.22035/gjesm....
74.
Qaswar, M., Ahmed, W., Jing, H., Hongzhu, F., Xiaojun, S., Xianjun, J., Kailou, L., Yongmei, X., Zhongqun, H., Asghar, W., Shah, A., Zhang, H., 2019. Soil carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) stoichiometry drives phosphorus lability in paddy soil under long-term fertilization: A fractionation and path analysis study. PLoS ONE 14(6), e0218195. https://doi.org/10.1371/journa....
75.
Rahman, M.A., Ahsan, S., Hartschuh, J., Prochaska, S., Islam, K.R., 2024. Soil Phosphorus Partition and Transformations Under Diverse Land Uses. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 55(15), 2232-2247. https://doi.org/10.1080/001036....
76.
Rajasekharan, P., Nair, K.M., John, K.S., Kumar, P.S., Kutty, M.C.N., Nair, A.R., 2014. Soil Fertility Related Constraints to Crop Production in Kerala. Indian Journal of Fertilizers 10(11), 56–62.
77.
Rajendran, R., Esakkimuthu, R., Kandasamy, V., Babu, M., Maheswarappa, H.P., 2019. Identification and confirmation of hotspot areas and management of root (wilt) disease in Coconut. Phytopathogenic Mollicutes 9, 270–277. https://doi.org/10.5958/2249-4....
78.
Rajeshkumar, P.P., Thomas, G.V., Gupta, A., Gopal, M., 2015. Diversity, richness, and degree of colonization of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in Coconut cultivated along with intercrops in a highly productive zone of Kerala, India. Symbiosis 65, 125–141. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13199....
79.
Ramírez, J.F.G., Muñoz, R.C., Sossa, J.W.Z., 2023. Innovations and trends in the Coconut agroindustry supply chain: A technological surveillance and foresight analysis. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems 7, 1048450. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.....
80.
Ray, J.G., Nidheesh, K.S., 2019. Assessment of soil fertility characteristics of chemical-fertilized banana fields of South India, Communication in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 50, 275–286. https://doi.org/10.1080/001036....
81.
Reisig, D., 2023. Soil moisture influence on nutrient availability in the soil. Global Journal of Plant and Soil Sciences 7(4), 1-2.
82.
Rethinam, P., 2018. International Scenario of the Coconut Sector. In: Nampoothiri, K.U.K. (Eds.), The Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera L.) - Research and Development Perspectives. Springer Nature, Singapore, pp. 21-56.
83.
Ruba, U.B., Talucder, M.S.A., 2023. Potentiality of homestead agroforestry for achieving sustainable development goals: Bangladesh perspectives. Heliyon 9(3), e14541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heli....
84.
Sahodaran, N.K., Ray, J.G., 2018. Heavy metal contamination in 'chemicalized' green revolution banana fields in southern India. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 25(27), 26874–26886. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356....
85.
Sainju, U. M., Liptzin, D., Ghimire, R., Dangi, S., 2021. Relationship between soil carbon and nitrogen, soil properties, and dryland crop yields. Agronomy Journal 114(1), 395–414. https://doi.org/10.1002/agj2.2....
86.
Salim, M., Kumar, P., Gupta, M.K., Kumar, S. 2015. Seasonal Variation in some Chemical Characteristics of the Soil under different Land Uses of Jhilmil Jheel Wetland, Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications 5(10), 1–9. www.ijsrp.org.
87.
Santana, M.S., Sampaio, E.V.S.B., Giongo, V., Menezes, R.S.C., Jesus, K.N., Albuquerque, E.R.G.M.., Nascimento, D.M. do., Pareyn, F.G.C., Cunha, T.J.F., Sampaio, R.M.B., Primo, D.C., 2019. Carbon and nitrogen stocks of soils under different land uses in Pernambuco state, Brazil. Geoderma Regional 15, e00205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geod....
88.
Saraiva, A., Carrascosa, C., Ramos, F., Raheem, D., Lopes, M., Raposo, A., 2023. Coconut Sugar: Chemical Analysis and Nutritional Profile; Health Impacts; Safety and Quality Control; Food Industry Applications. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20(4), 1–33. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph....
89.
Sardi, K., Fulop, P., 1994. The relationship between soil potassium level and potassium uptake of corn affected by soil moisture. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 25(9&10), 1735-1746. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0010....
90.
Selvamani, V., Maheswarappa, H.P., Chowdappa, P., 2017. Soil Health Management in Coconut. In: Maheswarappa, H., Chowdappa, P. (Eds.), Soil Health Management in Plantation Crops. Today and Tomorrow's Printers and Publishers, New Delhi, India, pp. 27–65.
91.
Shinde, V.V., Maheswarappa, H.P., Ghavale, S.L., Sumitha, S., Wankhede, S.M., Haldankar, P.M., 2020. Productivity and carbon sequestration potential of Coconut-based cropping system as influenced by integrated nutrient management practices. Journal of Plantation Crops 48(2), 103–110. https://doi.org/10.25081/jpc.2....
92.
Sodangi, M., Kazmi, Z.A., 2020. Integrated evaluation of the impediments to the adoption of Coconut palm wood as a sustainable material for building construction. Sustainability 12, 7676. https://doi.org/10.3390/su1218....
93.
Soil Survey Organization, 2007. Benchmark soils of Kerala. Agriculture Department, Government of Kerala, India.
94.
Somasiri, L.L.W., Wijebandara, D.M.D.I., Panditharatna, B.D.P., Sabaratnam, S., Kurundukumbura, C.P.A., 2003. Loss of nutrients in a high-yielding Coconut plantation through the removal of plant materials from the field. Cocos 15, 12–22.
95.
Sparks, D.L., 1996. Methods of soil analysis: Part 3 - Chemical methods. SSSA Book, Madison.
96.
Sreeja, T.N., Ray, J.G. 2024. Arbuscular mycorrhiza as an essential ecotechnological tool: a critical review of literature on the role of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in the sustainability of cultivation and conservation of palms. Algerian Journal of Biosciences. 5(2). https://journal.univ-eloued.dz....
97.
Sreejamol, T.N., Ray, J.G. 2024. Ecology of arbuscular mycorrhizal association in Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) palms: Analysis of factors influencing AMF in fields. Rhizosphere 32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rhis....
98.
Sreejamol, T.N., Ray, J.G. 2025. Factors influencing heavy metal contamination in black pepper fields: a randomized study of the traditional chemical-fertilized black pepper fields of South India concerning soil types. Soil and Sediment Contamination. https://doi.org/10.1080/153203....
99.
Srinivasan, R., Anil Kumar, K.S., Chandrakala, M., Niranjana, K.V., Maddileti, N., Hegde, R., 2021. Characterization and classification of major Coconut-growing soils in the South Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu, India. Journal of Plantation Crops 49(2), 94–103. https://doi.org/10.25081/jpc.2....
100.
Subramanian, P., Dhanapal, R., Sanil, P., Palaniswami, C., Sairam, C.V., Maheswarappa, H.P., 2005. Glyricidia (Glyricidia sepium) as green manure in improving soil fertility and productivity of Coconut under the coastal littoral sandy soil. Journal of Plantation Crops 33(3), 179–183.
101.
Subramanian, P., Dhanapal, R., Palaniswami, C., Maheswarappa, H.P., Gupta, A., Thomas, G.V., 2009. Coastal sandy soil management for higher Coconut productivity. Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasaragod, Kerala.
102.
Subramanian, P., Thamban, C., Vinayaka, H., Hebbar, K.B., Ravi, B., Krishnakumar, V., Niral, V., Josephrajkumar, A., 2018. Coconut. ICAR‑CPCRI, Kasaragod, Kerala.
103.
Sudhalakshmi, C., 2021. Identifying soil fertility constraints and evolving management strategies for Pencil Point Disorder in Coconut. Journal of crop and weed 17(3), 70–75.
104.
Surendran, U., Sushanth, C.M., Joseph, E.J., Al-Ansari, N., Yaseen, Z.M., 2019. FAO CROPWAT model-based irrigation requirements for Coconut to improve crop and water productivity in Kerala, India. Sustainability 11, 5132. https://doi.org/10.3390/su1118....
105.
Swamanna, J., Kavitha, P., Chari, M.S., Reddy, M.S., 2015. Potassium dynamics in relation to soil properties in rice growing soils of Kurnool district, Andhra Pradesh. Andhra Pradesh Journal of Agricultural Sciences 1(3), 15-20.
106.
Thabit, F.N., El-Shater, A.H., 2023. Soliman W. Role of silt and clay fractions in organic carbon and nitrogen stabilization in soils of some old fruit orchards in the Nile floodplain, Sohag Governorate, Egypt. Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 23(2), 2525–2544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42729....
107.
Thamban, C., Jayasekhar, S., Chandran, K., Jaganathan, D., 2016. Coconut production in Kerala -trends, challenges and opportunities. Indian Coconut Journal 10–15.
108.
Thankamani, C., Prakash, K.M., Srinivasan, V., Kandiannan, K., Jayarajan, K., 2022. Coconut Leaf Mulching – a Boon for Ginger Farming. Indian Coconut Journal 9, 16–18.
109.
Tripathi, S., Srivastava, P., Devi, R.S., Bhadouria, R., 2020. Influence of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides on soil health and soil microbiology. In: Prasad, M.N.V. (Eds.), Agrochemicals Detection, Treatment and Remediation: Pesticides and Chemical Fertilizers. India: Butterworth-Heinemann, p. 25-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0....
110.
Valenzuela, H., 2023. Ecological Management of the Nitrogen Cycle in Organic Farms. Nitrogen 4(1), 58–84. https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrog....
111.
Vanitha, T., Subbarayappa, C.T., 2022. Forms of Potassium and its Relationship with different Soil Properties from Selected Land use Systems in Southern Transect of Bengaluru. The Mysore Journal of Agricultural Sciences 56 (3), 290-299.
112.
Varghese, R., Ray, J.G., 2025. Factors influencing heavy metal contamination in black pepper fields: a randomized study of the traditional chemical-fertilized black pepper fields of South India concerning soil types. Environment monitoring and assessment 197 (413). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661....
113.
Varghese, R., Ray, J.G., 2024. Sustainability of black pepper production: A critical analysis of physicochemical soil parameters concerning variables in pepper fields of South India 44(4),788-80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecof....
114.
Vasundhara, R., Prakash, N.B., Kumar, K.S.A., Hegde, R., Dharumarajan, S., 2021. Soil fertility status of Coconut and arecanut growing soils. Journal of Plantation Crops 49(2), 83–93. https://doi.org/10.25081/jpc.2....
115.
Verghese, E.J., 1966. Fertility status of Coconut Soils with special reference to the " Leaf "and "Root (Wilt)" diseases of the Coconut palm in Kerala. Agricultural Research Journal of Kerala 49-60.
116.
Walkley, A., Black, I.A., 1934. An examination of the degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter and proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Science 37, 29–38.
117.
Weil, R.R., Brady, N.C., 2017. Phosphorus and Potassium. In: The Nature and Properties of Soils, Pearson, Columbus, OH, USA, pp. 643-695.
118.
Wibowo, H., Kasno, A., 2021. Soil organic carbon and total nitrogen dynamics in paddy soils on Java Island, Indonesia. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 648(1), 012192. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1....
119.
Williamson-Benavides, B.A., Dhingra, A., 2021. Understanding root rot disease in agricultural crops. Horticulturae 7(2), 1–43. https://doi.org/10.3390/hortic....
120.
Xue-song, G., Yi, X., Liang-ji, D., Qi-quan, L., Chang-quan, W., Bing, L., Ou-ping, D., Min, Z., 2019. Spatial variability of soil total nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in Renshou County of Sichuan Basin, China. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 18(2), 279-289. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2095-....
121.
Yang, Z., Luo, Z., 2021. Nitrogen and Phosphorus Distribution and Relationship in Soils and Plants under Different-Aged Chinese Fir Plantation. Forests 12, 1271. https://doi.org/10.3390/f12091....
122.
Yan, S., Jiang, H., Li, J., Yan, C., Ma, C., Zhang, Z., Gong, Z., 2023. Effect of Short-Term Organic Matter Returns on Soil Organic Carbon Fractions, Phosphorus Fractions, and Microbial Community in Cold Region of China. Agronomy 13, 2805. https://doi.org/10.3390/agrono....
123.
Za'rate-Valdez, J., Zasoski, R. J., La¨uchli, A., 2006. Short-term effects of moisture content on the soil. Soil Science 171(5), 423–431. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ss.....
124.
Zhang, R., Wienhold, B.J., 2002. The effect of soil moisture on mineral nitrogen, soil electrical conductivity, and pH. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 63(2–3), 251–254. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021....
125.
Zhang, F., Niu, J., Zhang, W., Chen, X., Li, C., Yuan, L., Xie, J., 2010. Potassium nutrition of crops under varied regimes of nitrogen supply. Plant and Soil 335, 21–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104....
126.
Zhang, H., Wang, D., Su, B., Shao, S., Yang, J., Fan, M., Wu, J., Gao, C., 2021. Distribution and determinants of organic carbon and available nutrients in tropical paddy soils revealed by high–resolution sampling. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 320, 107580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee....
127.
Zhou, W., Li, S., Sun, X., Zou, R., He, L., Yu, J., Zhao, G., Chen, Z., Bai, X., Zhang, J., 2023. Soil Organic Carbon and Total Nitrogen Stocks and Interactions with Soil Metal Oxides in Different Climatic Zones. Forests 14, 1572. https://doi.org/10.3390/f14081....
128.
Zomer, R.J., Bossio, D.A., Sommer, R., Verchot, L.V., 2017. Global Sequestration Potential of Increased Organic Carbon in Cropland Soils. Scientific Reports 7(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598....
Share
RELATED ARTICLE
| eISSN: | 2300-4975 |
| ISSN: | 2300-4967 |
We process personal data collected when visiting the website. The function of obtaining information about users and their behavior is carried out by voluntarily entered information in forms and saving cookies in end devices. Data, including cookies, are used to provide services, improve the user experience and to analyze the traffic in accordance with the Privacy policy. Data are also collected and processed by Google Analytics tool (more).
You can change cookies settings in your browser. Restricted use of cookies in the browser configuration may affect some functionalities of the website.
You can change cookies settings in your browser. Restricted use of cookies in the browser configuration may affect some functionalities of the website.
